Temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry: The Imprint of the Cholas

In the twilight of the Pallava empire, another powerful dynasty emerged towards the end of the 9th century, that went on to dominate the Tamil country for the next 400 years. They were the Cholas. Hailing from the fertile Kaveri Delta, these kings built one of the greatest empires in southern India. Although a royal lineage called the Chola are mentioned in ancient Sangam literature as one of the Mooventhar, the 3 great kings, it is not clear whether there is a direct connection between them and the ones who defeated the Pallavas in the 9th century. In popular history it is assumed that they are the same. With Pazhayarai (Kumbakonam) and Uraiyur (Thiruchirapalli) as their twin capitals, they were sometimes vassals and allies of the Pallavas during the 6th to 9th centuries. Their break came when around 848 CE, a young Chola king called Vijayalayan raided Thanjavur, then controlled by a rival minor dynasty called the Mutharaiyar and established Thanjavur as ther new capital. The Mutharaiyar were also vassals of the Pallavar. Vijayalayan's son Aditya Cholan I, progressed to defeat the last Pallava king Aparajita Varman in the late 9th century to lay the foundation of the future Chola empire. The Chola empire ruled the Tamil country until its eventual demise in the late 13th century. During the 4 centuries of their rule, they controlled the entire Tamil country and beyond at most times.

The Cholas were reputed to be great temple builders even in the Sangam era. Oral history, legends and sthalapuranas mention great Sangam era Chola kings like Karikalan and Kochengannan who are believed to have built many temples. No temples from that era have survived intact. The temples that the Cholas have left for us are from the time of Aditya Cholan I in the late 9th and early 10th centuries onwards. The first temple from around that time is the legendary Narthamalai Temple complex near Thiruchirapalli. Called Vijalayacholeeswaram after Vajayalaya Cholan, father of Aditya Cholan I, most historians believe it was actually built by their rivals the Mutharaiyar or another minor dynasty. Adityan I was the first great temple builder of this new era of Chola dominance. A prolific temple builder, the Thiruvalangadu plates mentions that he built 108 Sivan temples along the Kaveri River. At least 16 temples that have survived are directly attributable to his reign. Most importantly the Cholas started a project to deliberately convert brick and wood temples to granite structures called Katrali (Kal+ Thali). Kal or கல் means stone in Tamil Thali or தளி means temple. This movement was spearheaded by the dowager queen and widow of Gandaraditha Cholan, Sembiyan Mahadevi. She was the great-aunt of Rajaraja Cholan I. Powerful and ardently Saivite, she was instrumental in rebuilding many old temples in granite across the empire. These stone temples were durable and have weathered the test of time and many have survived intact. But in the process, traces of older brick and wood temples have disappeared. By the end of the 10th century, most important temples had been rebuilt in stone, The Cholas went on to build new temples with ever greater skill and the greatest temple they built is arguably the Brihadeeswarar or Big Temple in Thanjavur commissioned by Rajarajan I. They continued to build exquisite temples until they lost power in the late 13th century, although the later temples were smaller than the masterpiece at Thanjavur.

Like the Cholas, the dynasties that came after them like the Pandya, Vijayanagar, Nayakkan etc. also rebuilt existing temples, thus obscuring the Chola elements. But due to their construction in granite the Chola features have survived in many temples, like Pallava elements before them. Many ancient temples that exist today are the amalgamation of many rebuilding efforts and features of many dynasties coexist, sometimes organically and at other times in somewhat incongruent fashion. Discerning visitors can identify various elements belonging to various periods as they traverse the temple. That said, there are temples that have survived that are purely or predominantly Chola in character. Many are in the custody of the ASI and are inactive or partially active temples. The ones that spring to mind are of course the Great Living Chola Temples made famous by the UNESCO World Heritage designation. But there are many others.

The following is a list of some of the finest Chola Temples that exist today Some are well known while others are obscure. Not a complete list by any means, but an effort to highlight them.

1. Brihadeeswarar or Big Temple , Thanjavur

2. Brihadeeswarar Temple , Gangaikondacholapuram

3. Airavateswarar Temple, Darasuram

4. Kampaheswarar Temple, Thirubuvanam

5. Dhenupureeswarar Temple, Maadampaakkam

6. Valisvarar Temple, Thiruvaleesvaram, Thirunelvely

7. Panchanatheeswarar Temple. Vaduguror Thiruvandarkoil

8. Thodatri Perumal Temple or Varatharaja Perumal Temple, Thirubhuvanai

9. Thirukundankudi Mahadevar Temple, Madagadipattu

10. Munkudumeeswarar Temple, Ponvilainthakalathur

Sources:

1. The Cholas: K.A. Nilakanta Shastri New Century Book House. Chennai 1989

2. Cholar Varalaru. M. Rajamanikkanar. Rhythm Veliyudu (Tamil). Chennai 2022