In the 4th century a new dynasty emerged in the northeast of the Tamil country called the Pallavas. This land was traditionally called the Thondai Nadu or Thondai Mandalam. It was centred around Kanchipuram, Mamallapuram and Chennai in modern day Tamil Nadu but extended in area to the southern districts of today's Andhra Pradesh and as far south as Pondicherry and beyond. At certain times, the extent of their territory, reached the Kaveri river and further south. Their influence spread much wider. Their origins are obscure and are shrouded in mystery. Some historians postulate that they came to the Tamil country from elsewhere. Theories about their place of origin abound. Some suggest that they were indigenous. Some even connect them to the ancient legend of Ilanthirayan, who as a baby was found on the seashore wrapped in a Thondai vine or creeper, a common plant. Legend claims that he was the son of a Chola prince and a Naga princess and was lost or abandoned at sea. He survived and went on to establish a kingdom with Kanchipuram as his capital. Thirai means sea in Tamil. The land that he ruled came to be known as Thondai Nadu after the Thondai plant that saved his life. Pallava means creeper in Sanskrit. The Pallava connection to Ilanthirayan is tenuous as the Pallava appear on the scene centuries after this legend. They were likely feudatories of the Satavahanas, the powerful dynasty that ruled the Deccan for centuries. The Pallavas may have become dominant upon the decline of the Satavahanas, like their contemporaries and rivals the Chalukyas. They seem to have defeated the Kalabhras, the dynasty that was ruling the Tamil country at that time. The Pandiyans were in control of the land further south. The Pallavas built an empire with Kanchipuram as their capital city. Later the port city of Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram as it is referred to today, emerged as the maritime capital. They controlled a vast territory and traded overseas, especially with countries in Southeast Asia. They ruled for about 600 years. They were in constant conflict with the Chalukyas to the north and the Pandyas to the south. The Cholas who were a minor power and sometimes vassals of the Pallava, eventually defeated them towards the end of the 9th century. Aditya Cholan, son of Vijayalayan, defeated the last Pallava king Aparajitavarman to lay the foundation for the future Chola empire. The early Pallava inscriptions are in Prakrit. Later Sanskrit became the official language of the royal court. Tamil was the language of the common people and later inscriptions are in Sanskrit and Tamil. They adopted the Grantha (கிரந்தை) script to write in Sanskrit. The Tamil script they favoured has evolved into the modern Tamil alphabet. The Pallavas were at times Vaishnavite, Buddhist, Jain and Saivite. They were tolerant towards all faiths and patronised temples belonging to various religions. The Pallavas were prolific temple builders. Many of the temples that they patronised have been built over during later dynasties, thus obscuring the Pallava contribution. But the Pallava imprint can be seen in many temples in the region of their rule and beyond. Some temples have survived that are purely or predominantly Pallava in character, The Pallavas appear to be the first kings to build in stone. Their early works were cave temples excavated out of the living rock. The earliest example may be the cave temple built at Mandagapattu by Mahendravarman I (570 or 600 to 630 CE). Prior to that, temples were likely built of wood and brick. Narasimhavarman I or Mamalla, Mahendravarman's son built Mamallapuram and the monolithic rock cut temples like Pancha Rathas and the Ganesha Ratha were built during his rule. They later evolved into structural stone temples like the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram and the Talagrisvarar at Panamalai. These were built during the reign of Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimhan. The following is a list of the finest Pallava temples that have survived: a] Rock-Cut Cave Temples - 6th -7th century 1. Mandagapattu Cave Temple 2, Mahendravadi Cave Temple 3. Lalitankura Cave Temple, Thiruchirapalli 4. Mamandur Cave Temples b) Monolithic Rock-Cut Temples - 7th century 1. Pancha Rathas at Mahabalipuram 2. Ganesha Ratha at Mahabalipuram c) Structural Stone Temples - 7th-8th century 1. Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram 2. Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram 3. Vaikuntha Perumal Temple Kanchipuram 4. Talagirisvarar Temple, Panamalai Possible extent of Pallava power and influence. Direct rule might have been confined to the area surrounding Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram, with expansion and reduction over time. Image created with the aid of ChatGPT AI. Sources: Dr M . Rajamanikkanar, Pallavar Varalaru, Rhythm Veliyedu 2021(Tamil) R. Mannar Mannan, Pallavar Varalaru, Payitru Pathippakam 2016 (Tamil)

கிருபாபுரீசுவரர் அல்லது அருட்கொண்டநாதர் திருக்கோயில் திருவெண்ணெய்நல்லூர் This is a very special Sivan temple for Saivite Hindus. It lies west of Pondicherry, close to Vilupuram in Tamil Nadu. It is on the banks of the Thenpennai River. Sundarar or Sundaramoorthy Nayanar, the 8th century poet saint was born close to here in Thirunavalur. When Sundarar was a young man and was about to get married, an old man interrupted the marriage ceremonies and declared that Sundarar was his slave. An angry Sundarar called the old man a piththa (பித்தா) or madman. The old man claimed that he had documents to prove that Sundarar indeed was his slave and they were in Thiruvennainallur. So Sundarar and the marriage entourage followed the old man from Thirunavalur to Thiruvennainallur where the old man produced the documents at this temple. A group of elders examined the documents and found them to be authentic. At this moment, the old man walked into the sanctum and disappeared. Realizing that the old man was none other than Lord Siva himself in disguise, the repentant and inconsolable Sundarar entreated with the Lord to show him a way to make amends. Siva commanded him to sing and when Sundarar asked him what he should sing about, the Lord asked to sing about the madman, piththa (பித்தா). Thus the young Sundarar came to sing his very first pathikam, the well known Thevaram - "Piththa pirai soodi….. பித்தாபிறை சூடீபெரு மானேயரு ளாளா எத்தான்மற வாதேநினைக் கின்றேன்மனத் துன்னை வைத்தாய்பெண்ணைத் தென்பால்வெண்ணெய் நல்லூரருட் டுறையுள் அத்தாஉனக் காளாய்இனி அல்லேனென லாமே. The temple was extensively renovated by the Chola kings starting from Paranthakan I in the 10th century. The great Chola queen Chempiyan Mahadevi also contributed immensely to the building works. Given the importance of the temple, many later dynasties like the Pandians and the Nayakkans have also contributed. The beautiful tall rajagopuram is from this later era. Although under the control of the HR and CE, the temple is decently maintained. It is situated about 62 km or 90 minutes west of Pondicherry. We visited in May 2023. We were based in Pondicherry Credits: Google Maps.

பஞ்சவர்ணேசுவரர் திருக்கோயில், உறையூர், திருச்சிராப்பள்ளி Close to the centre of the city of Thiruchirapalli, is a suburb called Uraiyur. British colonial administrators misheard it as Woraiyur and recorded it as such in colonial records, giving it its current administrative name. Tucked away among its bustling streets is an ancient Sivan temple called the Panchavarneswarar or Panjavarneswarar temple. It is a Paadal Petra Sthalam. Today, a small part of the large city of Thiruchirapalli, Uraiyur was once the capital of the Sangam era Cholas. Together with Pazhayarai, this was a centre of power for the early Chola kings. There is a legend that the Sangam era Chola king Karikalan was once wandering around Uraiyur astride his elephant, when the elephant went berserk as elephants are prone to do sometimes. Suddenly, out of nowhere a large rooster appeared, flew up to the elephant's forehead and furiously pecked it there. This miraculously calmed the elephant to the great relief of the panicked king. Thus the place came to be known also as Kozhiyur. Kozhi means chicken in Tamil. Other legends claim that it was an obscure Chola king called Veeravathithan who was thus saved by a rooster. In Thirugnanasampanthar's time, it was also called Thirumukkeeswaram. It is the birthplace of two early Chola kings Kochengatcholan and Pugalcholan, who are included among the 63 Nayanmar to honour their contribution to Saivite revival called the Bhakthi movement. The Alwar saint Thirupanazhwar was also born here. The temple to Lord Sivan here is known as the Panchavarneswarar (the five-coloured Lord) due to the legend that he appeared here in five different colors at five different times in the day to the great sage Uthanga Munivar. Other legends claim that it was actually Lord Brahma who was thus blessed. The colours are believed to be golden yellow, white, red, black and smoke ash. In Tamil the Lord is also referred to as Aivanna Perumal. Some claim that the Sivalingam changes colour throughout the day even now. It might have done so at some time, due to the chemical composition of the stone and its reflective qualities, but it is not so obvious now. At least it is not perceptible to most people. When we were there the officiating priest told us that he has not seen the colour change in his 8 years working at the temple. According to him, only the very pious can perceive it and he did not belong in that league. The Sivalingam is a relatively small Suyambulingam (self-manifested lingam) that is kept covered by a copper kavasam or shield most of the time. This temple should not be confused with another temple with a similar legend where also the Lord is sometimes called the Panchavarneswarar. That temple is at Thirunallur (not Thirunallar) near Kumbakonam. There are a number of other legends, which is not surprising given the great antiquity of the temple. According to oral history, it is believed that the temple was originally built by Kochengatcholan. He seems to have built a number of Sivan temples in the Kaveri area. They were brick and wood structures. This temple had been converted to a granite temple in the 10th century by later Chola kings. The temple contains eight sets of historically important inscriptions. There are inscriptions from the reigns of Rajarajan I and Rajendran I. Some of the inscriptions are from unnamed Chola kings. One inscription details the gifting of the tax revenue of a nearby village for the maintenance of the temple. It is the 122nd Paadal Petra Sthalam and the 5th on the south bank of the Kaveri. It has been immortalised in Thevaram by Thirugnanasampanthar in the early seventh century. He sings thus: சாந்தம்வெண்ணீ றெனப்பூசி வெள்ளஞ்சடை வைத்தவர் காந்தளாரும் விரலேழை யொடாடிய காரணம் ஆய்ந்துகொண்டாங் கறியந் நிறைந்தாரவ ரார்கொலோ வேந்தன்மூக்கீச் சரத்தடிகள் செய்கின்றதோர் மெய்ம்மையே ( With his forehead adorned with the white sacred ash and with the river (Ganga) in his matted hair he dances with Uma who has beautiful fingers like the petals of the Kaanthal (Flame Lily or Gloriosa superba) flower. Why does he do so? What mysterious truth is he trying to reveal to us? This Lord of Mukkeeswaram) Thevaram 2.120 The temple has a five-tiered rajagopuram and three prakarams. It has a karuvarai, arthamandapam and mahamandapam. The pillars have exquisite granite carvings. The beautiful dvarapalakars adorning the entrance of the sanctum are from the eighth century. The temple is replete with Chola features. The rajagopuram is certainly suggestive of Nayakkan times but might be the product of modern renovation. The census reports of 1961 specifically mention that there was no rajagopuram. It likely has been rebuilt since then. There have been a number of renovation efforts in modern times. It is an east-facing temple with the shrine for the Goddess Kanthimathi facing south. The temple is owned and administered by the HR and CE department of the Government of Tamil Nadu. The sthalavirutcham is the Vilva tree. There is a tank or stepwell inside the premises called the Sivatheertham which is the main theertham. There are many festivals celebrated throughout the year but the main one is the Brahmotsavam in Vaikasi (May/June). The temple is open daily from 5:30 to 12:30 in the morning and from 4:00 to 8:30 in the evening. The temple is located in the city of Thiruchirapalli or Trichy about 10 km or 30 minutes northwest of the airport. We visited in July 2026. We were based in Thiruchirapalli. Sources: Dinamalar: Uraiyur Sri Panchavarneswarar Temple P.K Nambiyar and K.C . Narayana Kurup, Census of India 1961. Volume IX. Part XI -D. Temples of Madras State. Thiruchirapalli and South Arcot Pages 199-200 Thevaram Courtesy Google Maps

இருதயாலீசுவரர் திருக்கோயில், திருநின்றவூர் This temple also called the Hridayaleeswarar temple is a Sivan temple just outside the western outskirts of Chennai. It is in Thiruninravur which is better known for the Bhaktavatsala Perumal temple there which is a Divya Desam. Very close to the Perumal temple, this Sivan temple is very ancient. Hridya means heart in Sanskrit. It is Tamilized as Irudhayam. This temple is the temple of the heart. The Lord in the sanctum is Irudhayaleeswarar or the Lord of the Heart. It is closely associated with Poosalar (பூசலார்), pronounced Poosalaar, one of the 63 Nayanmars of Tamil Saivism. Poosalar was a pious but poor priest who lived in Thiruninravur in the late seventh or early eighth century. He had a fervent dream to build a great temple for Lord Sivan, but did not have the means to do so. Well-versed in the agamic traditions, he designed a temple in his mind and built it in his heart, step by step everyday. From choosing the stones to placing the idols, he took great care and over time, a beautiful temple took shape in his thoughts. Finally the temple was complete and he could picture it perfectly in his mind. He was ready to do a grand kumbabishekam or consecration for the temple in his heart. In the meantime, unbeknownst to him, the Pallava king at nearby Kanchipuram was also building a grand temple for Lord Sivan. Coincidentally, the king set the date for the Kumbabishekam of his temple for the same day as Poosalar did for the temple in his heart. A few days before the set date, Lord Sivan appeared in the king's dream. He told the king that he could not attend the kumbabishekam of his temple because he had to attend another one in Thiruninravur that Poosalar had built. The curious king went to Thiruninravur to see for himself. Not seeing any new temple, he inquired and found Poosalar. The poor man explained to the king that the temple was in his heart. Fascinated by the story and deeply impressed by Poosalar's devotion, the king ordered the building of the temple according to Poosalar's plan. In the Periyapuranam, the 12th of the Panniru Thirumurai, and the hagiography (sacred biography) of the 63 Tamil Saivite saints or Nayanmaar, its author Sekkizhaar (சேக்கிழார்) describes the story thus: அன்றினார் புரம் எரித்தார்க்கு ஆலயம் எடுக்க எண்ணி ஒன்றும் அங்கு உதவாது ஆக உணர்வினால் எடுக்கும் தன்மை நன்று என மனத்தினாலே நல்ல ஆலயம் தான் செய்த நின்ற ஊர்ப் பூசலார்தம் நினைவினை உரைக்கல் உற்றார் -Periyapuranam (பெரியபுராணம்) 12.071 (In his wish to build a temple for the One who destroyed the three evil cities (Lord Sivan), but having no means to do it, but driven by an ardent desire nevertheless, deciding to build a temple in his heart, Poosalar of Thiruninravur built a temple in his thoughts. We now tell his story) In Tamil Saivite philosophy, Lord Sivan exists everywhere and his most desirable temple is in a devotee's heart. The concept is a recurrent one in the scriptures. In Thirumoolar's Thirumanthiram, the 10th Thirumurai, he says "உள்ளம் பெருங்கோயில் ஊனுடம்பு ஆலயம்" - the heart and body are great temples. The story of Poosalar and the temple he got built embody this concept. The Periyapuranam calls the king involved as Kadavar Koman. Historically he is identified as the great Pallava king Narasimman II or Rajasimman and the grand temple he built in Kanchipuram as the Kailasanathar. If that is accurate, the temple must have been built in the late 7th or early 8th century. In the 1920s a wealthy industrialist by the name of P.S. Saathappa Chettiar of Coimbatore is believed to have renovated the temple and his descendents still play an active role in its maintenance. The temple is in the control of the HR and CE Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu. The temple faces east with gopurams at both the east and west outer entrances. The inner roof of the temple is of 4 parts symbolizing the 4 chambers of the human heart. The Lord manifests as Hridayaleeswarar or Manavaleeswarar as a large sivalingam. There is an idol of Poosalar within the sanctum which is unusual. The vimanam is of the Gajaprishta or Thoonganai Maadam style which is common in the Thondai Nadu. The Devi is Maragathambigai and is in a standing posture in her own shrine. There is a statuette in stone of King Rajasimman near the Navagraha shrine. People suffering from various heart related ailments come here to be blessed and cured. Eminent cardiologists and cardiac surgeons come to this temple to receive the Lord's blessing and enhance their skills. There are many festivals throughout the year. The thalaviruthcham or temple tree is the vilvam. Sources: Dinamalar Temples - Hridayaleeswarar Temple Thiruninravur Periyapuranam - Sekkizhar Shaivam.org The temple is located very close to or just outside the western outer edges of Chennai. It is about 36 km or 1.5 hours west of the centre of Chennai city. We visited in June 2025. We were based in Chennai. Courtesy Google Maps

These ancient temples which are built according to a certain set of codes and rules, have many features in common. The structural elements, idols, sculptures, layout and other aspects have deep meaning and symbolism. Some of them are repeated in many different temples with many interesting variations. Despite the common themes, these temples also differ in many ways and each one is a unique masterpiece. Knowing the common elements and their symbolism helps the visitor appreciate the thoughts, ideas and meticulous planning that have gone in to building these works of sacred art. We will explore each of these features of the South Indian temple in this post, moving from the outside of the temple towards its core and then exploring other associated features . External Walls: Most large temples are enclosed by multiple walls with the most external walls being the greatest in height. They are often very plain and built of granite blocks. In some others they are painted in red and white alternating vertical stripes. Not all temples have this pattern. The more ancient temples do not have this and it might be a relatively new phenomenon . Although there are attempts to find philosophical meaning to this practice, it seems more a tradition than anything else. Perhaps it was a way of defining the outside walls of a temple to passersby. The top of these walls are often adorned with sculptures. In many Sivan temples you will find a series of Nandhis. Gopurams: These towering structures are the most prominent features of the Dravidian style of temples that are prevalent in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Visible for miles around, they are the first structures that we notice when approaching a temple. Initially, relatively small structures, they have increased in height since the 12th century onwards. Over the ages they have evolved into the tall structures that we see today. There are many variations in style and height. They are generally built over the entrances in the four cardinal directions with the one over the main entrance, the Rajagopuram often the tallest. If there are multiple enclosures there will be a set of gopurams at the entrance of each enclosure with their height diminishing as we approach the sanctum. The gopurams are often made of brick and wood and adorned with stucco figurines depicting stories from Hindu mythology. As these are perishable materials, these structures are prone to damage unless cared for constantly. They are rebuilt periodically when the damage is too great. Some of the gopurams are painted white, while some others are given a pastel shade. Some have figurines that are colourfully painted in vibrant colours. This practice appears to be a later development and likely originated in the Nayakkan period. In some temples the gopurams are quite plain and are devoid of any extra adornments. Entrances or Vayil: These entrances of the temples in all four directions are usually built of granite or other sturdy material and have sculptures and inscriptions on them. They often form the base for the gopuram above. Some do not have a significant gopuram and are called a mottai gopura vaasal. Nadai or Doors: These are doors at the entrances that are shut when the temple closes during the afternoon or at night. They are opened at dawn and are closed shut at midday to open again in the afternoon around 4 pm and remain open till late at night when the temple closes. They are usually wooden structures with metal reinforcements and are sometimes fortified. Prakarams or circumambulatory enclosures: Many temples have a series of walls and entrances leading to the sanctum. They thus form a series of enclosures between walls and these are called prakarams. It is customary to circumambulate the temple along these pathways in a clockwise direction, although in some temples and on certain days the circumambulation takes an elaborate course. These prakarams are home to various subsidiary shrines and idols, processional idols and vehicles, administrative areas, storage rooms. kitchen, library etc. The prakarams symbolize the many layers of the universe. Mandapams: The mandapams are halls inside the temple. The large hall that you encounter at the entrance of the temple, where the Kodimaram, the Balipeedam and the Vaahanam are situated is often called the Mahamandapam or the Muhamandapam. Other mandapams can be in the axis of the entry to the temple or in the prakarams. Some are additions in later years like the 1000 pillared halls from the Nayakkan period. These have many ornately carved pillars. They are used for various functions including weddings, performances etc. They also have subsidiary shrines. Kodimaram or Dwajasthambam: This is the first structure we encounter as we enter the temple. It is the flagstaff. It is usually a metal or stone structure that is ornately designed. It is used to hoist a flag on special days. Balipeedam: The Balipeedam is literally a sacrificial pedestal. It is used in certain rituals. As devotees move towards the sanctum they should sacrifice their egos and expectations here. Vaahanam or vehicle: In Sivan temples this is the Nandhi. The sculpture of the sacred bull that is Siva's vehicle comes in various shapes and sizes. The Nandhi usually faces the sanctum. In the occasional temple it can also face the entrance. In Vishnu temples the Vaahanam is the Garuda. Sometimes the vaahanam sits in a mandapam built for it. Dwarapaalakar: These are the two guardian deities on either side of the entrance to the Arthamandapam. They are imposing figures and sometimes have a fierce look. Arthamandapam: This is the mandapam immediately in front of the sanctum sanctorum or the Karuvarai/Garbagriham. It is usually the last chamber the general public is allowed in. It is the ante-chamber of the karuvarai. Karuvarai or Garbagriham: This is the sanctum sanctorum and houses the primary idol. In Vishnu temples there are idols of the various avatars of Lord Vishnu in a lying, standing or sitting posture. In Sivan temples it is usually a Sivalingam. This usually a square or rectangular chamber. It is quite small and there is limited space only for the priest to do his pooja. Sometimes this chamber can be circular or apsidal. Vimanam: The vimanam is the tower that is built over the karuvarai. It also comes in various interesting shapes and sizes. There are regional as well as historical differences. Certain vimanams were popular in certain periods in time and in certain places. They appear to have started out as small structures with a single layer but have evolved over time into very elaborate creations with multiple layers and interesting adornments. Like the gopurams they are also often decorated with interesting stucco images from Hindu mythology and likely became popular in Nayakkan times. The vimanam historically became larger and taller and reached its peak during the height of Chola power with the one at the Big Temple at Thanjavur, becoming one of the tallest ever built. In later times, from the late 12th century onwards, the gopurams grew gradually taller and dwarfed the vimanams in most temples. They differ in shape and design too. The simplest are square and pyramidal. Some are cupola or dome shaped. There are rare ones like the Ashtanga Vimanam which have eight sides. The Thoonganai Maadam or Gajaprishta Vimanam popular in the Thondai Nadu in the late Chola period, is named after an elephant's back which it resembles. It is built over an apsidal sanctum sanctorum Koshta Idols: In the recesses on the outer walls of the Karuvarai, several idols are found. Commonly seen idols here in Sivan temples are Dhakshinamoorthy, Lingothbavar, Durga, Perumal etc. Subsidiary shrines: Apart from the primary or presiding deity, there are other deities within the temple complex. The larger ones are usually found in the outer prakarams. There is usually a Ganesha shrine in the far right corner and a Murugan sannithy in the far left corner as you face the temple. There is usually an Amman or Goddess shrine in the complex and it is smaller and is either parallel to the primary shrine, either to the left or right or at right angles to it facing the Mahamandapam. Processional idols or Uthsavamoorthy: These are metal (usually bronze) idols and are used during festivals. They are carried around the temple or in the surrounding streets of the town in procession. The Ther or Chariot: These are large wooden structures with wheels that are decorated and used to carry the processional idols around the temple and on city streets. They are pulled by a set of ropes that devotees will grasp to move the chariot or car. Theertham: Every temple has one or more waterbodies associated with it. These can be a nearby ocean, lake, river or other natural waterbody. Very often there is a temple tank or pond within the complex. There are a series of steps leading down to the water's edge and taking a dip in the waters are part of the worship ritual. Thalavirutcham or Temple Tree: The temple usually has a tree associated with it. It is usually found in one corner of the temple premises and is cared for and worshipped. There are a wide variety of trees that are used in this manner. Some of the trees are very old. Temple animals: Many temples have resident elephants and cows etc.. These are animals cared for in the temple premises and participate in the everyday functioning of the temple. There is often a Goshala or cattle-shed where cows and bulls live. This is a brief overview for the reader to appreciate the many symbolic aspects of a temple in Tamil Nadu or Pondicherry.

சிவசூரியபெருமான் திருக்கோயில், சூரியனார் கோயில் Called the Sivasuriya Peruman Koil, this popular temple is one of the Navagraham temples. The Navagrahams are nine celestial bodies or points in space celebrated in Hindu or Sanatana belief systems. They are commonly referred to as the nine planets which is not accurate. A trip to all Navagraham temples is a common pilgrimage for many. This temple is for the Sun God on whose bounty all life on planet earth exists. There are only a few temples in India dedicated to the Sun, like the Sun Temple at Konarak, Odisha or the one in Modhera, Gujarat. Here in the Tamil country, this small temple also honours the Sun. Although there is a shrine for the Sun in many Saivite temples, a dedicated temple is rare. Here, images of Lord Sun and his consorts Usha Devi and Pratyusha Devi, grace the sanctum instead of Lord Sivan. It is the only temple of the nine Navagraham temples where Lord Sivan is not the presiding deity. There are separate shrines for all the other eight Navagrahams here, which is also unique. Legend says that the Navagraham deities were rid of a curse by Lord Sivan and were given permission to grant boons to devotees independently here at this holy site. The antiquity of the temple is unclear. Sangam literature mentions a Sun Temple at Uchikizhan Kottam in Poompuhar which was destroyed by a massive tsunami. So the worship of the Sun and building temples to it are ancient practices. The Suriyanar Koil is the only one that has survived. The earliest structures here are from the time of Kulothunga Cholan I (1066-1118). An inscription from that time refers to the temple as Kulothunga Chola Marthandalaya. It is said that his interest in the temple was influenced by his allies, the Gahadavala dynasty of Kanauj who were ardent worshippers of the Sun. The temple was also extensively renovated by the Vijayanagar kings. There is an inscription from the time of the Vijayanagar emperor Krishnadevaraya, mentioning important endowments. The temple faces west. It has a three tiered rajagopuram and is enclosed by a granite walled rectangular compound. At 2 acres in area, it is a relatively small temple. There is a tank or theertham to the left or north as you enter. It is called the Surya Theertham. The Kol Theertha Vinayagar shrine here is very auspicious. The vimanam is designed like a chariot, symbolizing the belief that Lord Sun traverses the cosmos on a chariot drawn by seven horses. There are statuettes of horses on the vimanam. The shrine for Lord Guru is right opposite the main sanctum and is said to cool down the heat emanating from Lord Surya. The other seven Navagraham shrines are spread around the compound, all facing Suryanar. The temple has unique and elaborate worship rituals. It is customary to visit the nearby Paadal Petra Sthalam at Thirumangalakudi before visiting here. The order of worship is peculiar. Most devotees will turn left or northwards as you enter through the rajagopuram. They will either dip in the theertham or sprinkle water from it on their heads before turning southwards to worship Lord Kol Theertha Vinayagar. They then will visit the Sabanayagar mandapam to see the Utsava moorthy before proceeding to the main mandapam to worship Lord Sivan as Kasi Viswanathar. Subsequently, they will enter the mahamandapam to pay homage to Lord Guru before worshipping Suryanar in the sanctum sanctorum. They then will go on to worship the other Navagraham deities in a particular order. The circumambulation is done nine times. The sthala virutcham is the Vellerukku tree. The theertham is Surya Theertham. The major festival is the Rathasapthami which is a ten day festival in the Tamil month of Thai (January/February) which marks the beginning of the Utharayanam. It symbolizes the beginning of the Sun God's journey north. The temple is administered by the HR and CE. Photography was difficult given the ongoing renovations. There was a lot of scaffolding covering the major elements. The renovations seem tacky compared to the elegant ancient core of the temple, a common result of renovations. The temple is located about 100 km or 2 hours east of Thiruchirapalli, 55 km or 1 hour east of Thanjavur and close to Kumbakonam. We visited in June 2025. We were based in Kumbakonam. Sources: Dinamalar Temples TempleNet-Surynaar Koil N. Chockalingam 1971, Census of India 1961. Volume IX. Part XI -D. Temples of Tamil Nadu Page 158. Courtesy Google Maps

People often ask why the kings and people of India built so many temples and in such grand scale and style. There were several reasons why temples were built in ancient times, and they continue to play interesting and sometimes vital roles in people’s lives. 1. First and foremost, the temples were and continue to be places of worship. This is where people have come to pay homage to their deities for hundreds and perhaps thousands of years. These were and continue to be refuges and sanctuaries from the travails of everyday life. People find peace here. Thus, they gave freely to the building and upkeep of these temples. The origin of some temples is quite ancient and obscure. 2. Temples have been sites of pilgrimage for people for many centuries. People have made pilgrimages to various temples often to fulfill a vow. They promoted travel in many instances. 3. Kings and other powerful and wealthy people built temples for the welfare of the people and for their own spiritual needs. Royal dynasties believed that building temples, consecrating them and maintaining them by providing funds for the Agamic rituals to be performed to perfection brought prosperity to themselves and the people and victory over their enemies and competitors. 4. Temples were also places of knowledge transfer. Age old traditions, customs, beliefs and stories were imparted to a younger generation here. Even today you can often see older folks telling stories from the Puranas and Ithikasas to young audiences who listen in rapt attention. 5. The temples reflect the architecture of various periods in history. Some are masterpieces and show case the building skills of the stonemasons and sculptors who built them. They are engineering marvels. 6. They are also repositories of art. These temples are full of sculptures and paintings of deities and often depict stories from the Puranas. A lot of the paintings and murals are decaying, and some have been completely lost. The sculptures are made of stone, stucco and metal. The Cholas specialized in bronze idols. 7. They also promoted music, drama and dance. They have played an important role in preserving the culture of the people. Most temples have halls and stages for performances. There were resident dancers and musicians. Poojas are often conducted to the accompaniment of musical instruments. The Odhuvaar recited the Panniru Thirumurai in the correct manner. The various poses of the Bharatha Natyam are depicted in sculpture in many temples. 8. The temples also inspired a large quantity of religious literature. The Pathikams of the Thevaram celebrated a total of 276 ancient Sivan temples. The Naalayira Divya Prabantham praise the 108 Divya Desam Vishnu temples. Many literary works have been preserved in temples as palm leaf manuscripts. 9. The temples also offer a historical record of the land, its people and their rulers. The numerous inscriptions on walls and free-standing stones give us a glimpse into the lives of people from the period and help us piece together the history of various dynasties that ruled this land. There are also palm leaf scrolls and copper plates that record historical events which are stored in temples. 10. Temples have sometimes been built by kings to celebrate a great victory or conquest. The great temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram was built by Rajendran I to commemorate the great victories of the Chola army all the way to the Ganga. Sometimes they were built to commemorate a dead king or general. They are sepulchral temples. Often, they were kings who fell in battle. The beautiful temple built for Arinjaya Cholan (Rajarajan’s grandfather) at Melpadi near Vellore is a good example. 11. Temples have also served as a platform to keep the poor and hungry fed in times of need. They continue to serve this purpose even today when free meals are served. Various benefactors provide the funds. It is called Annadhanam. They have thus been involved in the social welfare of the people. There is an ancient temple near Kanchipuram which shows evidence of once serving as a hospital in Cholan times. They were charitable institutions. 12. The temples have also been economic hubs providing a livelihood for various trades including, sculptors, carpenters, artists, hawkers, vendors, shopkeepers, priests, singers, musicians etc. There is a whole economic ecosystem that revolves around these temples. In ancient times and less so in modern times, temples also owned a large amount of property both commercial and agricultural, that were donated to them. Many people depended on these properties for their livelihoods as tenants and lease holders. 13. Temples have also been places where important life events take place such as marriage rituals, anniversaries and renewing of marital rituals. 14. During festivals like the annual pulling of the chariot around the temple, the Ther festival, the temple and its surroundings transformed into a grand bazaar, a fair and a place for people to shop, eat and have fun. 15. Temples were also places where prospective brides and grooms saw each other for the first time. 16. In times of scarcity temples served as granaries and storehouses of food. In many temples the seed paddy or rice was stored at temples for planting in the next season. 17. In times of war, they were places of refuge for the population. Some temples were fortified for this reason. The Kailasanathar temple at Tharamangalam in Salem comes to mind in this respect. 18. Temples have also been places where political discourse took place. The Vaikuntha Perumal Temple in Uthiramerur has 10th century inscriptions describing the functioning of a democratically elected 30 member Sabha or council to run the village affairs. So, the temples of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry have been central to the lives of the people and have had a myriad of functions. They are in many ways microcosms of the culture of the people of these lands.

அகத்தீசுவரர் திருக்கோயில், கிளியனூர் This is an ancient Sivan temple. Of the 276 Paadal Petra Sthalams, this is the last to be listed. The pathikam is by Thirugnanasampanthar and was discovered only in the 1930s. தார் சிறக்கும் சடைக்கு அணி வள்ளலின் சீர் சிறக்கும் துணைப்பதம் உன்னுவொர் பேர் சிறக்கும் பெருமொழி உய்வகை ஏர் சிறக்கும் கிளியன்ன வூரனே. The temple was originally a brick temple that was converted to a granite temple by Paranthaka Cholan I according to inscriptions here. The temple lacks a kodimaram and a rajagopuram. Legend says that the sage Agasthyiar installed and consecrated the deity here. Hence the name Agastheeswarar. The temple is undergoing repairs and renovations and all the structures were covered in scaffolding. Renovations by the HR and CE always make me nervous because they sometimes destroy inscriptions and structures of immense historical value. They have access to the expertise of the ASI which they do not always utilize. Politics. At least the site gets a better look and is protected from encroachment. Could not take good pictures due to the construction and scaffolding. It is located about 21 km or 30 minutes northwest of Pondicherry. We visited in May 2023. We were based in Pondicherry. Credits: Google Maps.

திருமூலநாதசுவாமி திருக்கோயில், பாகூர், புதுச்சேரி This is an interesting Sivan temple in Pondicherry which is an odd combination of architectural styles from different eras which are beautifully intertwined. The original temple is believed to have been built by the Pallavas in the 7th century. The copper plates of Pallava king Nirupathungavarman mention this temple in the 9th century. In the 10th century Paranthaka Cholan I, completely revamped it. The Nayakkans added columns and a small mandapam. And the French renovated it in the 19th and 20th centuries. So the base pedestal or upapitha of the sanctum with carvings of dancing girls etc. is clearly Pallava. The walls with numerous inscriptions, the koshta idols, the Boothagana frieze under the cornice, the yali frieze and the koodus with human faces are all likel;y Cholan. The Vimanam is modern and built by the French. One of the statuettes is actually of a Frenchman. Can you spot him? The front part of the temple was rebuilt by the French and is clearly European. This is an ASI property. It is located in the southern part of Pondicherry about 20 kms or 45 minutes from downtown Pondicherry. We visited in May 2023. We stayed in Pondicherry. Credits: Google Maps

When we refer to Pondicherry or Puducherry, most people, especially those outside of India, think of the city on the Coromandel Coast, about 4 hours or 152 km south of Chennai. It was one of the French holdings in colonial India. Historically referred to as Pondicherry during French rule, it was renamed Puducherry in 2006 by legislation in keeping with the current trend of indigenization of colonial names. But what most people do not realize is that Pondicherry or Puducherry is also a Union Territory that lumps together many former French holdings in South India that are not contiguous. The Union Territory of Puducherry has four districts. Two of them, Puducherry and Karaikal are in the Tamil country surrounded by the state of Tamil Nadu. Puducherry or Pondicherry district is situated in the historical Nadu Naadu (நடு நாடு) or Middle Country bordered by the contemporary Tamil Nadu districts of Cuddalore and Villupuram. It includes the city of Pondicherry or Puducherry. The district of Karaikal is further south and is a separate enclave surrounded by the districts of Nagapattinam and Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu. It is in the Kaveri delta and in the historical Chola country. Both contain many ancient temples and those temples are featured in this blog. The other two districts, Mahe and Yanam are outside of the Tamil country. Mahe is on the western or Malabar coast where it is a district surrounded by the state of Keralam and Yanam is further north along the Coromandel coast surrounded by the state of Andhra Pradesh at the mouth of the Godavari river. Even the territories of the districts of Puducherry and Karaikal are not contiguous themselves. If you take these two districts, they include small pockets of land within the surrounding Tamil Nadu while other pockets of Tamil Nadu territory fall within the Pondicherry districts. Very confusing state of affairs. A colonial legacy. In this post we will highlight the following temples in the Tamil country that are situated in the Union Territory of Puducherry and are protected by the ASI. These belong to the districts of Puducherry and Karaikal. Where appropriate, we will link these to the respective blog posts from the temples we visited in person. The following four temples in the district of Pondicherry or Puducherry are easily reached from the city of Pondicherry. Thodatri Perumal Temple or Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Thirubhuvanai: This relatively small Vishnu temple located about 20 km west of Pondicherry city is a treasure house of Chola art from the early to mid 10th century. It was originally built by Paranthakan I. It contains a number of fine sculptures and architectural elements. It is an active temple Panchanatheeswarar or Vadugurnathar Temple, Thiruvandarkoil: This is another temple from the early 10th century again built by Paranthakan I. It is a Sivan temple. Frozen in time and relatively well preserved, it is a fine example of the temples of that period. It is a partially active temple and one of the Paadal Petra Sivasthalams. It is located 20 km west of the city of Pondicherry Thirukundankudi Mahadeva Temple, Madagadipattu: From the late 10th century this small beautiful Sivan temple is an example of Chola architecture of the time. Inscriptions say that it was commissioned by Rajarajan I. It is located 25 km west of Pondicherry city. It is an inactive or minimally active temple. Mulanathaswamy Temple, Bahour: Interesting Sivan temple originally built by the Pallavas in the 7th century and renovated by the French in the 19th and 20th centuries, it is an odd but aesthetically pleasing combination of styles from different eras, There are some European features too. It is located about 20 km south of Pondicherry city. It is a partially active temple. The following two temples are situated in the district of Karaikal. We have not visited them yet. Tharangambadi or Kumbakonam are good bases for these temples. Thanthondreeswarar or Suyambunathar Temple, Nedungadu, Karaikal Chola era Sivan temple in Karaikal, District. Protected by the ASI. Beautiful architecture. It is located about 150 km east of Thiruchirapalli and 16 km southwest of Tharangambadi Egambareswarar Temple, Sethur, Karaikal Chola era Sivan temple protected by ASI. Well preserved architecture of the period. It is located about 150 km east of Thiruchirapalli and 24 km southwest of Tharangambadi Sources: Official website of the Archeological Survey of India Courtesy Google Maps Courtesy Google Maps

ஐந்து இரதங்கள், மகாபலிபுரம் Part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site at Mahabalipuram, this ASI protected monument is a group of rock-cut structures hewn out of a single stone in each case. They are thus called monolithic structures. There are five such main structures and they are called rathas because they are shaped like chariots. They were part of an ambitious project by the Pallava king Narasimhan I or Mamallan who ruled from 630 to 680 CE. It is possible that preliminary work was started during the reign of his father Mahendravarman. The project was not completed due to the death of Narasimhavarman I in 680 CE. It is doubtful whether these structures ever served as places of worship and were never consecrated. So, some would dispute them being seen as temples. I have dedicated a post to this complex in these series because it is a milestone of sorts in the progression of temple building in the Tamil country. Many of the elements seen here were incorporated into later Pallava and Chola temples built in the ensuing centuries. We only have a vague idea how pre-Pallava temples looked like. They have not survived as they were constructed of perishable materials such as wood or brick which was not very durable. Moreover they have been rebuilt as granite temples during the imperial Chola era. Some believe that the Pancha Rathas were built based on concepts present in those long lost temples. Similar rock -cut temples were attempted elsewhere. There is an 8th century, incomplete rock cut temple at Kalugumalai attempted by the Pandian kings. It is also incomplete. The most impressive temple of this type was the later, Kailasanatha temple built by the Rashtrakuta kings at Ellora in present day Maharashtra. The Pancha Rathas are located in Mahabalipuram, 60 km or an hour south of Chennai by car in good traffic. We visited in July 2010. We were based in Chennai Credits: Google Maps

கம்பகேசுவரர் அல்லது சரபேசுவரர் திருக்கோயில், திருபுவனம் Situated just outside of the sacred town of Kumbakonam and to the east of it, is this magnificent and massive Sivan temple. Built in the twilight years of Chola imperial power, it stands tall as a testament to the skills of the great Chola temple builders. Taking its rightful place abreast the great temples at Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram and Darasuram, it is a true marvel and is a living Chola edifice. It is an active temple and such is not grouped with the UNESCO designated Great Living Chola Temples, but many believe that it should be the fourth temple in that group. The temple is situated very close to another great temple, the Mahalingeswarar at Thiruvidaimarudur. The story goes that an ancient king, Varaguna Pandian by some accounts, escaped the Brahmahathi or ghost of a Brahmin priest he had killed inadvertently, by worshipping at Thiruvidaimarudur and leaving by a back entrance. Although he escaped the wrath of the Brahmahathi, he developed a tremor in his body due to the stress and anxiety. He was cured of this by worshipping here. Kampa means shivering in Sanskrit. That is why Lord Sivan here is known as the Kampaheswarar or Kampahareswarar or Nadukkam Theertha Nayagan (நடுக்கம் தீர்த்த நாயகன்) in Tamil. The temple is also known for its Sarabeshwarar shrine, Often the temple itself is referred to as the Sarabeswarar temple. Sarabeswarar is a fierce form of Lord Sivan. It is believed that when Lord Vishnu assumed the Narasimha Avatharam to annihilate Hiranyakashipu, he was so worked up that he could not return to his usual placid state. It is said that the blood of Hiranya got into Lord Narasimhar. Lord Sivan took the Sarabeswarar form to battle Lord Narasimhar and pacify him. Sarabeswarar cuts a strange figure with a Yazhi face, human body, eight legs, four hands and two wings. It is a fusion of man, lion and eagle. The Devas who were trembling with fear of Lord Narasimhar, stopped shivering when Lord Sarabeswarar pacified Lord Narasimhar. It is another reason why the Lord here is known as Kampaheswarar. The temple has an imposing and beautiful 7 tier rajagopuram facing east. Wider than usual gopurams, it has a plethora of fine figurines adorning it. There is a secondary, 3-tier gopuram at the entrance of the inner prakaram. The sanctum is on a platform or raised plinth like a Maada Koyil. The vimanam is taller than the rajagopuram and is a 7-tier 126 foot structure. It reminds one of earlier Chola temples like the Big Temple at Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavateswarar at Darasuram. At around 5-6 acres it is a fair sized temple with spacious prakarams. The seven foot tall metal idol of Lord Sarabeswarar is housed in its own dedicated shrine which is unique. This is the only temple where there is a shrine for Sarabeswarar. The Amman is called Aram Valartha Nayaki or Dharmasamvardhani and is housed in a separate east facing shrine. A later construction than the 3 Great Living Chola Temples, it differs from them due the vividly painted vimanam and gopuram. The other three have a more subtle tone. Although the gopuram is likely the handiwork of the Nayakkan kings the vimanam was built by the Cholas and appears to be intended to be colourful from the onset. This signals a transition in temple building from a staid appearance to a more colourful and vibrant one that evolved further in Vijayanagara and Nayakkan times. There are numerous fine carvings and paintings depicting scenes from the great epics, the Ramayanam and the Mahabharatham, as well as poses of Bharatanatyam. Large stone carvings of the mythical creature, the Yazhi, are cardinal features of later Nayakkan temples. But the Yazhi, with its various variations, has been present from Sangam times. Pallava and Chola architecture do have Yazhis but not to the same extent and not as elaborate as in the Nayakkan temple architecture. The Yazhi Varisai or Yazhi frieze is a signature feature of Chola temples. However, the large Yazhis make an appearance in a Chola temple here at Thirubuvanam for the first time. Thus it is a transitional or bridge temple in temple architecture. The temple was constructed by the great Chola emperor Kulothunga Chola III (1178-1218) to commemorate the victories of his northern campaign. There are many inscriptions in Tamil and Grantha describing the building efforts. There is one set of inscriptions that describes the functioning of an institution for religion and philosophy at this temple. After the subjugation of his southern rivals, the Pandiyans, the Cherans and the Sinhalas, Kulothungan III assumed the title Thiribuvana Chakravarthy, the emperor of the three realms. The temple and the village was named after him and the title. Today it has evolved as Thirubuvanam. There are two inscriptions in Tamil from the reign of Jatavarman Thirubuvanachakravarthy Parakramapandiyan. The exact dating is unclear, but it is likely from one of the Pandiyan kings belonging to the later Pandiyan empire that briefly ruled after the fall of the Cholas. The inscription describes a contract between the local village watchmen (Oorkaaval) and the temple for its security and protection. Some sources claim that this is a Thevara Vaippu Sthalam. If that is true, there had to have been an older, ancient temple at this site that Kulothungan III rebuilt in the late 12th or early 13th century. This is unlikely. Moreover, the claim is based on a Thevaram quote from Appar where he invokes Lord Sivan as Buvana. It is too generic to attribute to this temple. As such the claim that this is a Thevara Vaippu Sthalam is not very strong. The temple has as many as nine theerthams. The most important one is the Saraba Theertham. The sthala virutcham is the sacred Vilvam tree. There are many festivals throughout the year. The most important one is the 18 day Brahmotsavam in Panguni (March/April). A large congregation of devotees gather twice a month on pradosham days. The temple is administered by the Dharmapuram Adheenam. The temple is located 100 km or 2 hours east of Thiruchirapalli and 140 km or 3 hours south of Pondicherry. It is just outside Kumbakonam on its eastern outskirts. We visited in June 2025. We were based in Kumbakonam. Dinamalar Temples - கம்பகேசுவரர் திருக்கோயில், திருபுவனம் (Tamil) N. Chockalingam 1971, Census of India 1961. Volume IX. Part XI -D. Temples of Tamil Nadu: Thanjavur Pages 165-68 R.K.K Rajarajan Stucco Images in the Thirubhuvanam Temple, History Today. Vol 22. Pages 36-43 Courtesy Google Maps